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Focus group research is a form of qualitative methodology used to gather rich, descriptive data in a small-group format from participants who have agreed to "focus" on a topic of mutual interest. Krueger (1988), author of numerous works on focusgroup research, defines a focus group as "...a carefully planned discussion designed to obtain perceptions on a defined area of interest in a permissive, non-threatening environment. It is conducted with approximately seven to ten people by a skilled interviewer. The discussion is relaxed, comfortable, and often enjoyable for participants as they share their ideas and perceptions. Group members influence each other by responding to ideas and comments in the discussion."

Focus group methodology provides insight into a topic from theparticipant's point of view. Focus group research addresses the "why" ofissues. In contrast, quantitative methodology emphasizes collectingnumerical data, answering the question of "how many." Infocus groups, participants are encouraged to speak in their "own" language(those who work with first-year students know what this means!)and to move the topic-at-hand to the most meaningful points fordiscussion. Emphasis is on understanding of participants' experiences,interests, attitudes, perspectives, and assumptions.

Focus groups are a valuable methodology for investigating programs,services, problems, and products in higher education. They canbe used to generate new ideas, explore an issue in-depth, and understandcritical issues in planning and delivery of programs and services(Jacobi, 1991). Increasingly, focus groups are used as a complementto other methodologies. Focus groups may be used to interpret puzzlingresults from surveys, to guide the development of a questionnaire,or to give "voice" to quantitative results. In triangulatingmethodologies, a broader perspective may be gained on importantresearch questions.

Examples of focus groups described in the literature includecollege-bound high school students giving feedback on recruitmentmaterials (Benson, 1999); transfer students focusing on the transferprocess (Davies, 1998); African-American students sharing perceptionsof being a student on a traditionally white campus (Lee, 1999);and distance education students focusing on the quality of distanceeducation courses (Purnell, 1996). Clearly, focus groups maybe useful for gathering data from various populations on a widevariety of topics.

Focus Group Participants

Students are most often the participants in college and universityfocus groups; yet, effective groups may be made up of employers,alumni, staff, or any other stakeholders involved in the process,programs, and outcomes of higher education. The composition ofthe group is guided by the simple question "Who can most clearlyanswer your important research questions?" Who would be theideal participant? What are the criteria for participation?

Generally, groups that are homogeneous perform better than heterogeneousgroups. Thus, you should consider the impact of gender, race, status(e.g., Greeks or non-Greeks), age, and other attributes on thecomposition of the group. Research shows that significant differenceswithin a group may create an unwillingness to talk and interactin the group; consequently, it may be necessary to convene morethan one group and vary the composition by group. For example,focus group research on library services might engage one or moregroups of traditional undergraduate students, another of non-traditionalolder students, and a third of distance education students.

The use of incentives should also be decided in advance. In thecommercial use of focus groups, participants are paid. This happenstoo in higher education. With students, though, the more likelyscenario is food at the event and/or coupons for use later. Youwant to attract people to the group who will give valuable feedback,for whom the topic is important, and whose responses will not bebiased by their assumptions of what you want to hear; yet, a smallincentive may increase the inclination to participate.

Focus Group Cycle: Planning-Implementing-Reporting

Focus group research is comprised of three distinct stages: planningthe research, conducting the research, and analyzing and reportingthe research.

Planning for the Focus Group

Several steps are important to ensure an effective focus group.First the sponsoring office or institution (hereafter called theplanner) must be clear about the goals of the research. Much discussionmay surround the question "What do you want to know?" Itis important to outline the problem, issue or product to be assessed,to identify the purpose of the focus group, and to generate a listof the broad research questions at the earliest stage of planning(Ponsford and Masters, 1998).

Subsequently, the planner must decide on the composition of thefocus group. The guiding research question is "Who can mosteffectively answer the research questions?" The populationidentified as the subjects for the research make up the "samplingframe," that population from which the focus group will beselected. For example, a study of student attitudes toward servicelearning might include in the sampling frame all students who didservice learning in the previous semester. A second cut might includeonly those who did service learning as seniors.

Basic criteria for consideration in creating the sampling frameinclude experience with the activity under focus, academic leveland status, gender, race or ethnicity, age, and other attributesas appropriate. For example, if the focus group will be used toinvestigate experiences in the first-year seminar, all studentswho enrolled in the seminar will initially be in the sampling frame.The additional criteria for participation could include (1) onlythose students who completed the seminar and (2) students withno direct leadership role with the program. Based on these criteria,a screening question might read, "Did you enroll in a first-yearseminar?" "Did you complete the seminar?" "Haveyou been a peer-leader in the first year program?" As youcan see, clear criteria for participation is necessary to developscreening questions that include certain, while excluding other,participants.

The research questions define the sampling frame and the refinementof the criteria for participation leads to the creation of screeningquestions used in selecting specific participants. "Commonality" isoften the most important criteria for participation. This is notto be confused with sameness of opinion or attitude toward theissue under discussion.

Following the development of "the screen," the plannersmust solicit participants for the focus group. Screening maytake place by telephone or email using a list of potential participants.Participation may be solicited through an announcement to a listserv,a visit to a classroom or a posting at places where studentsgather. I will not go into the pros and cons of convenience samplesversus more systematic sampling here, but I will advance thatstudents who meet the criteria for your study will likely generateuseful information for analysis.

Not to be forgotten in the planning phase is making clear arrangementsfor where and when the group will meet and being ready to communicatethis to the invited participants. Remember, tell them once, tellthem again, and remind them the day before the planned activity.Groups fail if no one comes!

Another important planning issue is the role of the moderatorin planning, conducting, and evaluating the focus group activity.Moderators may come in at any stage, and this decision needs tobe made early in the decision-making cycle by the planners. Althoughmuch is written about the role of moderators and the how-to ofconducting the group, it is most important that the moderator bea good listener and discussion leader, not identified with anyparticular outcome, and with no direct authority over the participants(e.g., program director or instructor). The moderator should beseen by the participants as an interested party, but neutral tothe outcomes.

Conducting the Focus Group

On the day of the focus group it is important to arrive early,organize the room, and set-up the audio or videotaping equipment(participants must grant their permission to be audio or video-taped).When the participants arrive, someone should greet them and makeeach feel comfortable and valuable to the process. The participantsshould be screened again at this point to be certain they meetthe criteria for participation. Extras that were invited to ensurea sufficient group size should be thanked and given the promisedincentive (e.g., food, movie coupons). During the group, a "logistics" personis needed to handle the equipment, take notes, and if agreeablewith the moderator, to interject a question for clarification orother purposes. This may be the same as the greeter. Finally, themoderator will begin and end the group which on average takes 90minutes or less.

The moderator should be skilled at using various types of questions,nonverbal behaviors and non-judgmental cues to elicit responses.The moderator must be skilled at listening, guiding, and prompting.Krueger (1994) notes "Quality answers are directly relatedto quality questions. " Moderators should prepare a set ofquestions prior to the session in consultation with the plannersfor use in guiding, but not controlling, the discussion. The moderator'sskill at eliciting participation, honest opinions, and managinggroup process will greatly affect the quality of the research outcomes(Greenbaum, 1998).

Deciding on the number of focus groups is always a challenge.During the course of the research, it may be necessary to plana third or fourth group. Or, it may be necessary to cancel a group.The analysis of the data throughout the process will yield cluesas to when to add groups and when to wrap up the process. Whenyou begin to hear the same themes, get the same outcomes, you havesaturated the opinions of the target population and data collectionmay end.

Analyzing and Reporting the Results of the Focus Group

Focus group reports may vary greatly in length, style, and comprehensivenessbased on the needs of the planners. A standard report generallyhas the following sections. The report opens with the purpose ofthe study: research questions, specific objectives of the research,logistics, and sponsors and planners. Next, the group compositionis described (preserving anonymity for participants). Includedis an overview of the selection criteria, the screening guide andprocess, number of participants and general characteristics. Anothersection describes the environment in which the focus group wasconducted; the way participants were assembled and welcomed; theincentives, if any, and their use.

The results of the focus group constitute the major section ofthe report. What did you learn about your research questions?What themes and ideas emerged? What important, and unexpected,issues emerged? Were there similarities or differences of opinionsand perceptions? The report may also include participant commentseither paraphrased or verbatim. The results section may varyin comprehensiveness and interpretation. For example, in rawdata summaries, the transcript of the session is supplied tothe sponsors with all questions and verbatim comments. In descriptivereports, themes are identified and supported by selected quotes.In interpretive reports, a summary of the discussion along withillustrative quotes is followed by interpretation of the meaningof the dialogue, questions, and themes. If the moderator is notwriting the report, he or she may be asked to develop a statementof moderator observations by topic discussed.

Following the summary, a synopsis of any problems that occurredshould be noted. Were there extremely biased members? Did somefail to talk? Moderation problems? Research is never pure and withoutproblems, and the limitations should be addressed in the report.Depending on the nature of the report, it may end with conclusions.In all cases, the appendices should include screening instruments,moderator guide, and any materials used as prompts or props.

Conclusion

Why use focus groups? Focus groups allow for spontaneity, snynergism,and security (it is okay to advance an unpopular response). Plus,focus group responses often "snowball," building oneon the other, something lost to individual interviews (Hess, 1968).In the focus group, every participant does not have to answer eachquestion as in individual interviews, and the group process stimulatesgroup discussion and idea generation, often lost in dyads. Focusgroups seemingly generate excitement among the participants andyield immediate information for planners.

In summary, focus group research may be a valuable tool for exploringthe first-year experience of students. And, your first attemptdoes not have to be perfect. Believing that we "learn by doing," givefocus groups a try, and if at first you don't succeed, that's okay,try again!

References

Benson, Mary Ellen. (February 1999). A jury of their peers. Currents,25(2), 44-49.

Bers, Trudy H. (1990). The Popularity and Problems of Focus GroupResearch. College and University, Spring 1989: 260-268.

Davies, Timothy G. and Dickmann, E. M. (1998). Student voicesin the transfer process: Do we hear them? Do we listen?. CommunityCollege Journal of Research and Practice, 22(5), 541-558.

Greenbaum, T. (1998). The Handbook for Focus Group Research, 2nded. New York: Lexington Books.

Hess, J. M. (1968). Group interviewing. In R. L. King, ed. Newscience of planning. Pp. 51-84. Chicago: American Marketing Association.

Jacobi, Maryann. (1991). Focus Group Research: A Tool for theStudent Affairs Professional. NASPA Journal, 28(3), 195-201.

Krueger, Richard A. (1988). Focus Groups: A Practical Guide forApplied Research. (1st ed.). Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications,Inc.

Krueger, Richard A. (1994). Focus Groups: A Practical Guide forApplied Research. (2nd ed.). Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications,Inc.

Lee, Wynetta Y. (1999). Striving toward effective retention: Theeffect of race on mentoring African-American students. PeabodyJournal of Education. 74(2). 27-43.

Ponsford, Brenda J. and Masters, L. A. (1998). How to Use FocusGroups in Higher Education Research. College and University, 73(3),2-9.

Purnell, Ken, Cuskelly, E., & Danaher, P. (1996). Improvingdistance education for university students: issues and experiencesof students in cities and rural areas. Journal of Distance Education.11(2), 75-101.

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Libby V. Morris, Ph.D.
Graduate Coordinator and Associate Professor
Institute of Higher Education
The University of Georgia
Athens, GA 30602-1772